Visual representations of single- and multi-sport participation in a youth swimming sample: Implications for definitions and discussions of early specialization.

Academic literature and sport policy documents have cited concerns about an increasing prevalence of early sport specialization, with associated burnout, dropout, and injury. However, evidence to support such statements is limited. Definitions of early specialization vary, but a common criterion is continued participation in a single sport, prior to adolescence. We explored the prevalence of single-sport participation and other patterns of sport involvement from ages 6-12 in a Canadian swimming sample using retrospective longitudinal methods. Parents of 236 competitive swimmers (ages 12-17) completed surveys on their children's sport backgrounds, including the number of sports participated in annually from age 6-12. A cluster heat map elucidated single- and multi-sport patterns over time. Mixed analyses of variance tested for differences by gender and club type. Fourteen percent of our sample showed stable participation in either one sport or multiple sports per year over time, 25% decreased their annual number of sports, and 60% increased. This trend of increasing, rather than decreasing the number of sports in their annual activity roster when approaching age 12 was particularly pronounced for girls. Only 10 participants (4% of the sample) consistently engaged in a single sport each year from age 6-12. Summer (seasonal) swimmers consistently did more sports than year-round swimmers. Overall, our findings showed highly idiosyncratic longitudinal patterns of sport participation that did not easily conform to current sport activity guidelines. We also found similar idiosyncrasy in an ad-hoc analysis of participants who had dropped out of swimming a year later. If single-sport participation is considered a key criterion for defining early specialization, our findings suggest the prevailing narrative around early specialization may be overstated in relation to the number of single-sport athletes. Alternatively, other components of early specialization may be more prevalent and deserving of attention due to possible associations with harmful outcomes.

On the self-regulation of sport practice: Moving the narrative from theory and assessment toward practice.

This paper reviews theoretical developments specific to applied research around the "psychology of practice" in skill acquisition settings, which we argue is under-considered in applied sport psychology. Centered upon the Self-Regulation of Sport Practice Survey (SRSP), we explain how self-regulated learning conceptually underpins this survey and review recent data supporting its empirical validation for gauging athletes' psychological processes in relation to sport practice. This paper alternates between a review of applied research on self-regulated sport practice and new data analyses to: (a) show how scores on the SRSP combine to determine an expert practice advantage and (b) illustrate the large scope of self-organized or athlete-led time to which SRSP processes may apply. At this stage, the SRSP has been established as a reliable and valid tool in the empirical, theoretical domain. In order to move the narrative from theory and assessment toward applied practice, we present evidence to propose that it has relevance as a dialogue tool for fostering meaningful discussions between athletes and sport psychology consultants. We review initial case study insights on how the SRSP could be located in consultation in professional practice, propose initial considerations for its practical use and invite practitioners to examine its utility in applied settings.

Examining the validity of the polish short form version of the self-regulated learning-sport practice survey among competitive athletes.

Introduction: Self-regulated learning entails psychological processes that elite athletes employ to optimize their practice. Although self-regulated learning provides insights into athlete-led practice, research has been limited to few cultures, and the particularities of how SRL surveys perform in new cultural contexts require attention. Moreover, there exists no measure to assess SRL and its relationship to quality sport practice in Polish. Thus, we examined the Short Form of the Self-Regulated Learning-Sport Practice survey in Polish. Analyses addressed the factorial validity and reliability, the criterion validity (by assessing differences in scores between competition levels), and the concurrent validity (by correlating scores with conceptually related constructs) of a Polish Short Form survey. Methods: Athletes (N = 324, M age = 21.4, n females = 144, n males = 180) from amateur, regional, national, and international-elite levels completed the survey, along with concurrent subscales (General Self-Efficacy Scale; GSES; Metacognitive-Self Scale; MS-24; Action Control Scale; ACS-90). Results: Confirmatory factor analysis indicated a two-factor (metacognitive; motivational) model (RMSEA = 0.082, SRMR = 0.057, CFI = 0.89). Between-group tests showed international-elite scoring higher than all other groups on metacognitive and motivational subscales. On both subscales, significant trends indicated that more skilled levels consistently reported higher scores than lesser-skilled levels. The short form scores were associated with certain concurrent variables, including GSES (rmeta = 0.41, rmotiv = 0.48), MS-24 (rmeta = 0.39, rmotiv = 0 .24), and ACS-90 (AOF subscale: rmotiv = 0 .26). Discussion: On the basis of strong criterion validity, and moderate evidence for concurrent validity, we conclude that the Polish Short Form of the Self-Regulated Learning-Sport Practice survey is a promising tool for use in Polish sport and we discuss future avenues of work to enhance its validation. Limitations that inform future research include our reliance on a mixed-sport sample, the lack of priming of obstacles/challenge ahead of self-report, and a lack of consideration of sport-specific practice variables in analyses.

Mental Performance Consultants' Perspectives on Content and Delivery of Sport Psychology Services to Masters Athletes.

In the absence of sport psychology resources for Masters Athletes, mental performance consultants could benefit from information to assist consultancy with older adult athletes. We conducted semistructured interviews to explore 10 Canadian professional mental performance consultants' (two men and eight women) perspectives of targeted content and the nature of service delivery to Masters Athletes. Following inductive thematic analysis, results for Content of Sport Psychology related to performance readiness (e.g., preparatory routines, mental focus plans); prioritizing sport (e.g., balance/time management, recruiting social support); preserving sport enjoyment (e.g., self-reflection, gratitude/sport as opportunity); and age-related considerations (e.g., managing changing physical realities). Results pertaining to Addressing and Delivering Sport Psychology Services included considerations toward age-related attributes (e.g., values/identity, engaged/invested clients) and accommodating barriers/constraints (e.g., time, stigma). Our results show there are novel considerations when consulting with Masters Athletes, and we discuss what these findings mean for adult-oriented approaches in applied practice.

The Adult-Oriented Sport Coaching Survey: An Instrument Designed to Assess Coaching Behaviors Tailored to Adult Athletes.

Adult sportspersons (Masters athletes, aged 35 years and older) have unique coaching preferences. No existing resources provide coaches with feedback on their craft with Masters athletes. Three studies evaluated an Adult-Oriented Coaching Survey. Study 1 vetted the face validity of 50 survey items with 12 Masters coaches. Results supported the validity of 48 items. In Study 2, 383 Masters coaches completed the survey of 50 items. Confirmatory factor analysis and exploratory structural equation modeling indicated issues with model fit. Post hoc modifications improved fit, resulting in a 22-item, five-factor model. In Study 3, 467 Masters athletes responded to these 22 items reflecting perceptions of their coaches. Confirmatory factor analysis (comparative fit index = .951, standardized root mean square residual = .036, and root mean square error of approximation = .049) and exploratory structural equation modeling (comparative fit index = .977, standardized root mean square residual = .019, and root mean square error of approximation = .041) confirmed the model. The resultant Adult-Oriented Sport Coaching Survey provides a reliable and factorially valid instrument for measuring adult-oriented coaching practices.

Constituent Year Effect in Masters Sports: An Empirical View on the Historical Development in US Masters Swimming.

A participation-related constituent year effect, has been found to exist in masters sports in that relatively younger masters athletes (i.e., those in the first or second year of a 5-year age category) participate in competitions significantly more often than relatively older masters athletes (i.e., those in the fourth or fifth year of a 5-year age category). The main purpose of this study was to examine if the participation-related constituent year effect in US masters swimming always existed or if it has developed over time at different historical time periods. Using archived data, participation in the US Masters national short course swimming championships at each of the historical time periods in years 1972, 1982, 1992, 2002, 2012 and 2016 were examined as a function of an individual's constituent year within any 5-year age category and across gender and age. The results indicated the existence of a participation-related constituent year effect for each of the six time periods. In particular, a participation-related constituent year effect seemed to have existed from the inception of organized masters swimming competitions in the US but has developed more strongly over the years especially for males and older-aged masters swimmers. Generally, the tendency to participate at National swimming competitions during the first year of an age category was significantly more pronounced, whereas the tendency of participating during the fifth year of an age category was lower. Findings suggest that the 5-year age categories may not provide an equal competitive opportunity especially for relatively older athletes as for those who are relatively younger, but may encourage more strategic periodized training and participation.

Markers of Early Specialization and Their Relationships With Burnout and Dropout in Swimming.

Empirical evidence directly associating early sport specialization with burnout and dropout is lacking, although a relationship is theorized. Research in this area relies on time-intensive retrospective interviews or questionnaires that generate large amounts of data. The optimal use of these data for assessing early specialization (ES) and its relationship with key criterion variables is unclear. The purpose of this study was to add empirical evidence to the literature regarding ES, burnout, and dropout. This involved examining a large number of hypothesized markers of ES and reducing them to a smaller set useful for predicting burnout and dropout. Survey data were collected from 137 swimmers, age 12-13 years, and their parents, including descriptions of swimmers' sport backgrounds from age 6 until present. Contrary to what was expected, the ES items were not positively related to burnout and dropout. The authors present several possible explanations, including key motivational considerations.

The Constituent Year Effect: Relative Age Disparities in Australian Masters Track and Field Athletic Participation.

The constituent year effect, a source of relative age disparities, in masters sport has been demonstrated mainly amongst North American samples. Thus, the purpose of this study was to examine whether a participation-related constituent year effect exists among athletes (n = 6492) competing in Australian Masters Athletics competitions between 2000 and 2014. The results indicated that a participation-related constituent year effect was observed as the likelihood of participating was significantly higher for masters athletes in their first and second constituent year of any five-year age category (p < 0.0001) and was lower when they were in the fourth or fifth constituent year. The results also indicated this effect is influenced by gender and age. Specifically, the effect was significant for both male (p < 0.0001) and female (p < 0.001) masters athletes; as well during the third, sixth, seventh, and eighth + decades of life (all ps < 0.001). These data demonstrate that despite masters sport being an avenue for promotion of participation and overall health, there is potential for improving how competitive organizational strategies are implemented given the recurring intermittent patterns of participation associated with five-year age brackets which are likely to compromise benefits.

Can athletes' reports of self-regulated learning distinguish deliberate practice from physical preparation activity?

Sustained persistence in deliberate practice (DP) could be aided by engagement in adaptive motivational and metacognitive types of self-regulated learning (SRL) processes. We examined relationships between SRL and each of DP and physical preparation (PP; e.g., cross-training) in supervised, unsupervised, social and non-social practice contexts. 272 individual-sport athletes (from city to international level; M sport activity = 13.54 hrs/wk; 200 males, ages 18-35) completed the Self-Regulation of Learning Self-Report Scale and reported weekly DP and PP amounts. We found contrasting results depending on specific SRL processes. Self-monitoring was related to DP (total, supervised, social conditions) but inversely related to PP. Effort was inversely related to supervised DP but positively associated with PP. Planning was associated with DP, and reflection and self-efficacy related to PP. We discuss the contrast between DP and PP, highlighting differences in the nature of these practice activities, and self-monitoring as a key SRL process for DP.

Development of a physical literacy model for older adults - a consensus process by the collaborative working group on physical literacy for older Canadians.

BACKGROUND: Arguably the uptake and usability of the physical activity (PA) guidelines for older adults has not been effective with only 12% of this population meeting the minimum guidelines to maintain health. Health promoters must consider innovative ways to increase PA adoption and long-term sustainability. Physical literacy (PL) is emerging as a promising strategy to increase lifelong PA participation in younger age-groups, yet there is relatively little evidence of PL being used to support older adults in achieving the PA guidelines. METHODS: An iterative and mixed-methods consensus development process was utilized over a series of six informed processes and meetings to develop a model of physical literacy for adults aged 65 years and older. RESULTS: A multi-disciplinary collaborative working group (n = 9) from diverse practice settings across Canada, and representative and reflective of the full range of key elements of PL, was assembled. Three consensus meetings and two Delphi surveys, using an international cohort of 65 expert researchers, practitioners, non-government organizations and older adults, was conducted. 45% responded on the first round and consensus was achieved; however, we elected to run a second survey to support our results. With 79% response rate, there was consensus to support the new PL model for older adults. CONCLUSION: Older adults are a unique group who have yet to be exposed to PL as a means to promote long-term PA participation. This new PL model uses an ecological approach to integrate PL into the lifestyles of most older adults. Understanding the interactions between components and elements that facilitate PL will ultimately provide a new and effective tool to target PA promotion and adherence for all older Canadians.

Two-Phase Evaluation of the Validity of a Measure for Self-Regulated Learning in Sport Practice.

Given the potential role of self-regulated learning (SRL) for enhancing practice and expertise development, we aimed to advance a valid and reliable athlete self-report measure of SRL for sport practice. We built on Toering et al. (2012a) initial SRL instrument along with Bartulovic et al. (2017) sport-specific modifications, and created new items to extend the conceptual breadth of the subscales. With a multi-sport sample of 482 athletes (Mage = 26.45, SD = 12.66; 55% female), two analytic phases tested (1) the factorial validity of the initial and the extended inventories, and (2) criterion validity, by examining how SRL scores distinguished skill groups ranging from local to international competitive levels. In Phase 1, the initial measurement model demonstrated psychometric concerns and we opted to pursue a refined model. The extended model demonstrated acceptable factorial validity but resulted in the fewest subscales. In Phase 2, subscales scores from all three models generally distinguished international-level senior (18 + years) athletes from lesser-skilled groups. Integrating the psychometric evidence and between-group effects across the initial, refined, and extended models, we conclude that the refined inventory, the Self-Regulated Learning for Sport Practice (SRL-SP) survey, is the preferred instrument.

Advances in athlete development: understanding conditions of and constraints on optimal practice.

The development of elite, high performance athletes reflects the complex interaction of biological and genetic factors with important environmental influences. Over the past two decades, discussions of athlete development have largely focused on the role of 'deliberate' practice, and more recently, researchers have begun exploring the means by which practice can be best used to maximize the rate of talent development across the different stages of athlete development. In this article, we summarize recent developments in understanding how athletes maximize practice including (a) antecedents of practice involvement, (b) environmental constraints of practice involvement, (c) the value of diversification for athlete development, (d) and methodological advancements in this area. Collectively, sustained focus on issues of athlete development and researchers' use of more advanced approaches to novel questions extend our understanding of the nuances associated with this process.

Associations Between Self-Control, Practice, and Skill Level in Sport Expertise Development.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to test the association between self-control (SC) variables and (a) sport-specific practice amounts, (b) engagement in various practice contexts, (c) threats to commitment to one's sport, and (d) skill development using the Brief Self-Control Scale (BSCS) in a diverse sport sample. METHOD: Two hundred forty-four athletes (47% female; Mage = 21.96 years, SD = 6.98 years; 68.8% individual sports and 31.2% team sports; 13.77 [SD = 8.12] hr/week of sport-specific practice) completed a survey composed of the BSCS and practice-related measures. Three skill groups (basic/intermediate, advanced, expert) were informed by athletes' self-reported highest level of competition. Separate analyses were conducted for juniors (aged 12-17 years) and seniors (aged 18-43 years). RESULTS: A 2-factor model (self-discipline and impulse control) fit the BSCS data. Fewer thoughts of quitting from one's sport were associated with higher self-discipline in juniors and seniors and were also related to higher impulse control in seniors. Greater practice amounts were associated with higher self-discipline; however, only seniors showed such associations in voluntary practice contexts. For juniors and seniors, impulse control was associated with more voluntary practicing. There were, however, no skill-group differences for levels of self-discipline or impulse control. CONCLUSIONS: Self-discipline and impulse control may be dispositional characteristics associated with how athletes engage in practice and avert conditions that threaten their sport commitment. SC dispositions may relate to practice amounts differently in juniors and seniors, depending on the requirements for self-regulation in a practice context.

Coach selections and the relative age effect in male youth ice hockey.

UNLABELLED: Relative age effects (RAEs; when relatively older children possess participation and performance advantages over relatively younger children) are frequent in male team sports. One possible explanation is that coaches select players based on physical attributes, which are more likely witnessed in relatively older athletes. PURPOSE: To determine if coach selections are responsible for RAEs by comparing RAEs in male players who played competitive versus noncompetitive ice hockey. METHODS: Using chi-square, we analyzed the birth dates of 147,991 male ice hockey players who were 5 to 17 years old. Players' birth dates were divided into four quartiles, beginning with January to March, which coincides with Hockey Canada's selection year. RESULTS: There were strong RAEs (p < .001) when players were selected to competitive teams by coaches through a tryout system. On noncompetitive teams that did not have coach selections, there were strong RAEs (p < .001) from 5 to 8 years old, but not 9 to 17 years old. CONCLUSIONS: Although coaches might perpetuate RAEs, other influential social agents might include parents, which ought to be investigated in future research.

Perceptions of five-year competitive categories: model of how relative age influences competitiveness in masters sport.

The purpose of this study was to examine the contrasting perceptions of masters swimmers related to the first and fifth constituent years of a 5-year age category. Swimmers aged between 35 and 93 years (154 male, 184 female) were surveyed at the 2008 FINA World Masters Championships. Exploratory factor analysis indicated the existence of the following five factors considered important for preparation, attendance, and success at masters competitions: awareness of advantages, expectancy, motivation, training, and physiological capacity. One sample t-tests showed that masters swimmers are conscious of advantages that 5-year age categories afford to relatively-younger cohorts (i.e., those who are in the first year of any age category). They also perceive that, in the first compared to the fifth year of an age category, they have greater physiological capacity, engage in more training, have higher expectations to perform well, and are more motivated (all ps < .001). Findings point to perceived psycho-social and physical factors that potentially explain why relatively younger masters athletes are more likely to perform better and to participate in masters competitions than relatively older masters athletes. Key PointsThere are at least five psycho-social and physical factors (i.e., awareness of advantages, expectancy, motivation, training, and physiological capacity) that may explain why relatively younger masters athletes are more likely to perform better and to participate more in masters competitions than relatively older masters athletes.Masters athletes are conscious of the advantage that 5-year age categories afford to relatively younger cohorts of athletes.Differential perceptions associated with the 5-year age categories might compromise masters athletes' continuity of sport competitiveness and underlying training.

Effects of a rule change that eliminates body-checking on the relative age effect in Ontario minor ice hockey.

Relative age effects in sport reflect an over-representation of athletes born early in a selection year that lead to selection and performance advantages. These effects might be enhanced by rules that increase physicality. An opportunity to investigate these influences arose when Hockey Canada altered its body-checking rules. Two studies are described that investigate the possible influence of this rule change. Study 1 used cross-sectional data to contrast relative age effects for 9-year-olds in games with and without body-checking (birth quartile 1 ranged from 27 to 39%; birth quartile 4 from 10 to 20%). Study 2 used quasi-longitudinal data to examine age effects when players transitioned from a season in which body-checking was permitted to one that prohibited such checking (birth quartile 1 ranged from 27 to 39%; birth quartile 4 from 11 to 20%). Chi-square statistics demonstrated relative age effects in both studies irrespective of body-checking. Post-hoc analyses indicated reductions in these effects that were limited to some second and third quartiles when body-checking was prohibited. Body-checking is not a critical mechanism of relative age effects. The physicality of ice hockey, regardless of body-checking, and increased experience in ice hockey are influential.

Participation-related relative age effects in Masters swimming: a 6-year retrospective longitudinal analysis.

Medic and colleagues (Medic, Starkes, & Young, 2007) found that relatively younger cohorts of Masters athletes had higher participation rates and achieved higher performances compared with a relatively older cohort. Considering that Medic and colleagues' (2007) study was cross-sectional in nature, the purpose of this investigation was to employ a retrospective longitudinal study design to examine the participation rates of Masters swimmers as a function of an individual's constituent year within any 5-year age category over a period of 6 years. Using archived data from the 2003 to 2009 US Masters Short Course National Championships, swimmers' attendance was followed for a period of six consecutive years. Results indicated that a participation-related relative age effect was observed among swimmers who, over a period of 6 years, competed in either at least one championship (N = 2596; Cochran's Q4 = 64.16, r(s) = -0.92, both P < 0.0001) or at least three championships (N = 441; Cochran's Q4 = 47.51, r(s) = -0.91, both P < 0.0001). Overall, effect size analyses indicated that the odds of a Masters swimmer participating in the championship during the first constituent year of any 5-year age category was more than two times greater than the odds of that athlete participating during the fifth constituent year.

Gender, age, and sport differences in relative age effects among US Masters swimming and track and field athletes.

A relative age effect has been identified in Masters sports (Medic, Starkes, & Young, 2007). Since gender, age, and type of sport have been found to influence the relative age effect in youth sports (Musch & Grondin, 2001), we examined how these three variables influenced possible relative age effects among Masters swimmers and track and field athletes. Using archived data between 1996 and 2006, frequency of participation entries and record-setting performances at the US Masters championships were examined as a function of an individual's constituent year within any 5-year age category. Study 1 investigated the frequency of Master athletes who participated; Study 2 examined the frequency of performance records that were set across constituent years within an age category, while accounting for the distribution of participation frequencies. Results showed that a participation-related relative age effect in Masters sports is stronger for males, that it becomes progressively stronger with each successive decade of life, and that it does not differ across track and field and swimming. In addition, a performance-related relative age effect in Masters sport seems to be stronger for swimming than track and field, but it does not differ across gender and decades of life.